Determination of atamka iyo taagoo. Qeexid eb ilaa 1932

Laga bilaabo xilliga qadiimiga ah in bartamihii qarnigii 18aad, sayniska waxaa ku badan fikradda ah in la eb ah - walxaha ka mid ah arrinta aan loo qaybin karaa. Ingiriisi cilmiga iyo naturalist, iyo D. Dalton siiyey qeexidda dhabta ah ee la eb sida qaybta ugu yar ee element kiimikada. MV Lomonosov in ay cilmiga qaaradda iyo kelli ahaa awoodaan in ay siin qeexid ah la eb iyo Britain. Waxa uu ka dhaadhiciyay in Britain, kaas oo uu ugu yeeray "corpuscles", oo ka kooban "canaasiirta" - atamka - oo ku jira mooshin joogto ah.

D. I. Mendeleev rumeysan yahay in walxaha subunit this uu ka samaysan yahay dunida wax, xajisto oo dhan hantida kaliya haddii, ma hoos horyaalka. In this article, waxaan qeexo shay sida qaybaha ka mid ah la eb ee, iyo ka baran hantida.

Asalka ah ee aragtida ah ee qaab-dhismeedka qaaradda

Qarnigii 19aad, waxaa si weyn loo aqoonsaday war on indivisibility ee la eb ee. saynisyahano intooda badan la rumeysan yahay in qayb ka mid element kiimikada xaalad kasta ma loo badali karaa atamka xubno kale. fikradaha Kuwaasu waxay ahaayeen sal on kaas oo ku salaysan qeexidda la eb ilaa 1932. In qarnigii 19aad ee sayniska ayaa lagu soo helay aasaasiga ah in beddelay view this. First of dhan, in 1897 jirka ah British J. J. Thomson ayaa helay electron ah. Dhab ahaantii Tani waxaa aasaas beddelay fikradaha saynisyahano 'oo ku saabsan qayb ka mid ah qaybin karo element kiimikada.

Sidee si ay u caddeeyaan in qaab-dhismeedka la eb dhismaha

Xitaa ka hor ka helay ee electron ah , saynisyahano heshiiyeen in atamka leeyihiin lacag la'aan. Markaas, waxaa la ogaaday in electrons waxaa si fudud kala duwanaayeen ka mid element kiimikada la doonayo. Waxay waxaa laga heli karaa olol, iyagu waa side haatan korontada, waxay sii daayo walxaha shucaaca lagu jiro x-ray.

Laakiin haddii electrons waa qayb ka mid ah oo dhan iyada oo aan marka laga reebo, iyo atamka si xun u amray, oo sidaas, in la eb waxaa jira qaar ka mid ah qurubyada in hubin in ay lacag fiican, haddii kale atamka ma noqon doono koronto dhexdhexaad ah. Si aad u caawiso ka rogaan dhismeedka eb ayaa ka caawiyay ugub ah jirka sida shucaaca. Waxaa siiyey qeexidda saxda ah ee la eb ee physics, ka dibna chemistry.

The rays aan la arki karin

jirka Faransiis A. Becquerel ahaa kii ugu horeeyay si ay u sharxaan arrin ku warshadu hawada ee atamka ee qaar ka mid ah xubno ka kiimikada, aragga rays aan la arki karin. Waxay ionize pass hawada iyada oo loo marayo wax ka, taasoo keenta blackening ee taarikada sawiro. Later, ee Curies iyo Rutherford ogaaday in walxaha shucaaca waxaa loo beddelaa atamka xubno kale oo kiimiko ah (sida uranium - neptunium).

shucaaca radioactive waa nonuniform in Halabuurka: qurubyada alfa, Qurub beta, rays gamma. Sayidka, arrin ku shucaaca cadaato in miiska wareegsan qayb xubno ka leeyihiin qaab adag. Dhab ahaantii Tani waxay sababtay isbedel ku sameeyey qeexidda la eb ee. Maxaa qayb ka yahay la eb, la siiyo by Rutherford helay xaqiiqooyinka cusub ee sayniska? Jawaabta su'aasha kanu wuxuu ahaa model la soo jeediyay nuclear aqoonyahan la eb, sida uu sheegay oo ku wareegsan electrons xuduntii togan-eedeeyay guurto.

Burinaya Rutherford model

Fikradda ah saynisyahan ah, inkastoo ay qof fiican, ma ay ujeeddo qeexo yaabaa eb ah. Natiijooyinka Her ahaayeen lid ku ah shuruucda asaasiga ah ee thermodynamics, sida uu sheegay oo dhan ee electrons ku orbiting nuclei ay lumiyaan tamarta iyo, waxa laga yaabaa inay, si degdeg ah ama goor dambe ku dhici isaga. Atom kiiskan baabbi'iyey. Tani dhab ahaantii ma aha kiiska, tan iyo kiimikada iyo qayb ka, taas oo ay ka samaysan yihiin, ka jirin ee dabiiciga ah muddo dheer. Inexplicably eb go'aanka sida ku saleysan aragtida ah ee Rutherford, iyo sidoo kale arrin ah in uu dhacaa marka marayay walxaha fudud kulul iyada oo diffraction ah iyo shabaggeedii. Ka dib markii spectra qaaradda sameeyey waqti isku mid ah waxay leeyihiin qaab toosan. Tani dagaalada la model Rutherford ee la eb, sida uu sheegay oo spectrum leeyihiin lahaa in ay si joogto ah. Sida ay fikradaha ah Farsamoyaqaan galmada, electrons jooga xuduntii aan lagu gartaa sida walax dhibic iyo sidoo kale isagoo qaab daruur electron ah.

Inta ay cufnaanta ee ku oogayso qaar ka mid ah meel ku wareegsan xuduntii, oo waxaa loo arkaa inay meesha walxaha a waqti la siiyo. Sidoo kale, waxaa la ogaaday in la eb ee, electrons waxaa lagu abaabulaa layers. Tirada layers la go'aamin karaa by og tirada ugu horaysay ee element ee D. I. System Mendeleeva ku wakhtiyeysan. Tusaale ahaan, la eb fosfooraska ka kooban 15 electrons iyo waxay leedahay saddex heer tamarta. tilmaanta, taas oo ay go'aamiso tirada heerka tamarta waxaa lagu magacaabaa tirada maamulaha galmada.

Waxaa la experimentally in heerka tamarta ee electrons, oo ku yaalla dhow xudunta u ah, waxay leeyihiin tamarta ugu hooseeya. qolof tamarta kasta oo u qaybsan yahay heer-hoosaadka, iyo waxay, markeeda, on orbitals ah. Electrons ku yaaliin orbitals kala duwan waxay leeyihiin daruuraha qaab isku mid ah (s, p, d, f).

Iyada oo ku saleysan ku qorani, waxaa soo socota in qaab daruurta electron ma noqon karaan sabab lahayn. Waxaa si adag loo go'aamiyo sida ay orbital tirada galmada. Waxaan sidoo kale ku dar in gobolka electron si particulate waxaa sidoo kale ka go'an laba qiimeeyo - magnetic iyo miiqdaan tirada galmada. marka hore wuxuu ku salaysan yahay isla'egta Schrodinger iyo calaamad u orientation ka da'ayeen daruur electron ku saleysan oo ka mid ah saddex-dimensionality of our dunida. The tilmaame labaad - tirada wareejin waxa on ogaado wareeg electron ee ku wareegsan dhidibka ama counter-u socoto.

helitaanka neutron ah

Iyada oo shuqulkii D. Chadwick, iyaga qabtay 1932, waxaa la siiyey qeexid cusub oo la eb ee chemistry iyo physics. In tijaabooyinka sayniska ay uu cadeeyay in cholesterol ku dhacdaa shucaaca Polonium sababa qayb ka ah isagoo lacag la'aan, baaxada 1,008665. A walxaha hoose ee cusub ayaa loo magacaabay neutron ah. Her daahfurka iyo waxbarasho ee hantida la ogol yahay ee saynisyahano Soviet V. Gapon iyo Ivanenko abuuro aragti cusub oo qaab-dhismeedka xuduntii qaaradda, oo ay ku jiraan protons iyo neutrons.

Sida laga soo xigtay aragti cusub, go'aaminta maalkii lahaa eb ee soo socda u sameeyaan unit qaabeedka element ee kiimikada, oo ka kooban muhiimka ah ka kooban protons, neutrons iyo electrons dhaqaaqin oo ku wareegsan. Tirada qurubyada wanaagsan in xuduntii had iyo jeer waa loo siman yahay si tirada horsanaanta ee element kiimikada nidaamka wareegsan ah.

Later Professor Zhdanov in tijaabo uu xaqiijiyay in sarkhaansan yihiin shucaaca runtan adag, nuclei qaaradda waxaa loo kala qaybiyey protons iyo neutrons. Intaa waxaa dheer, waxaa la cadeeyay in ciidamada ku haysta, kuwaas oo qayb ka hoose ee xuduntii, waa mid aad u tamar-degdeg ah. Waxay u dhaqmaan on masaafo aad u gaaban (amarka of 10 ^-23 cm), loo yaqaan nuclear. Sida hore loo sheegay, by MV Lomonosov ahaa awoodaan in ay siin qeexid la eb iyo Britain ay ku saleysan xaqiiqooyinka cilmiga ah isaga loo.

Currently aqoonsan fiirsan model soo socda: la eb ka kooban tahay xuduntii iyo electrons dhaqaaqin ku wareegsan ah waddooyinkeeda si adag qeexay - orbitals. Electrons waqti isku mid ah muujiyaan guryaha labadaba Qurub iyo hirarka, in uu yahay, waxay leeyihiin dabiiciga ah dual. xuduntii eb waa mid isku urursan ku dhowaad dhammaan ay mass. Waxay ka kooban tahay protons iyo neutrons la xidhiidha ciidamada nuclear.

Haddii ay suurogal tahay in ay miisaamaan la eb

Waxaa soo baxday in la eb kasta waxay leedahay mass. Tusaale ahaan, waa hydrogen 1,67h10 ^-24 waxaa xitaa adag tahay in la qiyaaso sida yar qiimaha this. Si aad u hesho miisaanka shayga, ha isticmaalin miisaanka, iyo oscillator ah, taas oo ah nanotube carbon. Si loo xisaabiyo miisaanka ku eb iyo Britain ayaa ka tiro ku haboon ka badan waa miisaankiisu qaraabo. Waxa ay muujinaysaa in inta jeer ee miisaanka Britain ama la eb ka badan 1/12 eb carbon ah, taas oo ah 1,66h10 ^-27 kg. tacsida qaaradda Qaraabo waa la siiyaa miiska wareegsan xubno kiimikada, iyo waxay leeyihiin aragti jirin.

Seynisyahanno waa ogyahay in miisaankiisu qaaradda ee element kiimikada ah - waa tirada celceliska mass of isotopes. Waxay u muuqataa, in dabiiciga ah ee hal unug of element kiimikada laga yaabaa in tacsida kala duwan. Sidaas oo kale ayaa lagu eedeeyay oo ka mid ah nuclei ka mid ah walxaha dhismaha sida la mid ah.

Seynisyahanno ku ogaaday in isotopes ku kala duwan yihiin tirada neutrons in xuduntii iyo nuclei iyaga ka qaadaan isku mid. Tusaale ahaan, la eb chlorine ah, isagoo mass oo ah 35 jira 18 neutrons iyo 17 protons, iyo mass ka mid ah 37 - 20 protons iyo 17 neutrons. xubno ka kiimikada badan ayaa isku dhiska ee isotopes. Tusaale ahaan, walxaha fudud sida potassium, argon, ogsijiin ku jira atamka ay ka kooban oo ka dhigan 3 isotope kala duwan.

Determination of atomicity

Waxay leedahay dhowr tafsiiro. Ka fikir waxa loola jeedo xilli ee kiimikada. Haddii atamka ee curiye kiimiko ugu yaraan muddo gaaban jiri karaan go'doomin, ma u muuqdaan in ay u sameeyaan qayb ka sii adag - taagoo, ka dibna waxaan u sheegaya in walxaha sida ay leeyihiin qaab-dhismeedka ah qaaradda. Tusaale ahaan, multi-yada reaction koloriin methane. Waxaa si weyn loo loo isticmaalo kiimikada dardaro organic ee taagayo halogeen waaweyn: dichloromethane, tetrachloride carbon. Waxaa la kala qaybsan tahay taagoo chlorine in atamka isagoo falcelin sare. Waxay baabbi'in dhaaraheedii li'idiisa ee Britain methane ah, bixinta reaction silsilad bedelay a.

Tusaale kale oo habka kiimikada ah isagoo muhiimadda ugu weyn in industry ee - isticmaalka oo hydrogenperoxid ah sida wakiilka jeermiska iyo bleaching ah. Determination of ogsijiin qaaradda sida wax soo saarka cholesterol oo hydrogenperoxid ah ay dhacdo in labada unugyada nool (by eulayska catalase), iyo shaybaarka. oxygen Atoomikada tayo go'aamiyo guryaha antioxidant ay sare iyo awoodda ay u leeyihiin in ay wada baabbi'in wakiilada pathogenic: Bakteeriyo, fangaska iyo kudka ay.

Sidee baqshadda nuclear

Waxaanu mar hore ogaaday in unit dhismaha ee curiye kiimiko leedahay qaab adag. Ku dhawaad qayb xuduntii togan-eedeeyay iilan electrons xun. The Nobel Prize Niels Bohr, oo ku salaysan aragti galmada iftiinka, abuuray wax bara, kuna waari dhexdeeda ku kala soocista iyo aqoonsiga of atamka waa sida soo socota: electrons dhaqdhaqaaqa xuduntii kaliya Waddooyinkiisa go'an qaarkood ay dhacdo in this ma radiate tamarta. Bohr, saynisyahano ayaa muujiyay in ay qayb ka mid ah microworld ah, oo ay ka mid atamka iyo taagoo hana, adeecin xeerarka ay ansax ah meydadka weyn - diidan macrocosm.

Dhismaha qolofka electron of particulates ayaa bartay in waraaqaha on saynisyahano physics galmada sida Hund, Pauli Klechkovskii. Tan waxaa ogaaday in electrons ka dhigi mooshinka wareeg ah agagaarka xuduntii ma aha qasan, laakiin on qaar Waddooyinkiisa go'an. Pauli ogaaday in heer a tamarta hal mid kasta oo ay orbitals s, p, d, f unugyada elektaroonik ah waxaa laga yaabaa in aan ka badnayn laba qayb xun oo lagu eedeeyay of qiimaha wareejin soo horjeeda + ½ iyo - ½.

xeerka Hund ayaa sharaxay sida loo buuxiyo orbitals electron la isla heerka tamarta.

Mabda 'Aufbau, sidoo kale loo yaqaan xeerka n + l, sharxaan sida orbitals buuxiyey multielectron atamka (xubno 5, 6, 7 wareegyada). Dhammaan oo ka mid ah regularities kor ku soo noqday saldhig u teori ah xubno ka kiimikada abuuray by Dmitriem Mendeleevym.

degree qayilo

Waa fikrad aasaasiga ah ee kimisteriga iyo qeexayaa dawladda ee la eb ee Britain ah. Qeexidda casriga ah ee heerka uu qayilo ee atamka waa sida soo socota: amarka waxaa shuruud atamka ee Britain, taas oo loo xisaabiyaa ku salaysan fikradaha in Britain ah uu leeyahay oo kaliya ka kooban Madbacada qaranka.

qayilo ayaa lagu sheegi karaa by abyoonaha ah ama tiro jajab, a qiimaha wanaagsan, negative ama eber. In atamka inta badan xubno ka kiimikada leeyihiin dhowr dalalka lagu qayilo. Tusaale ahaan, nitrogen waa -3, -2, 0, +1, +2, +3, +4, +5. Laakiin element oo caynkaas ah, sida fluorine, in dhammaan xarumaha ay leedahay oo keliya mid ka mid ah gobolka qayilo loo siman yahay si -1. Haddii la soo bandhigay walax fudud, ay gobolka qayilo ee eber. Tani kiimikada tiro habboon in la isticmaalo for kala soocidda ee walxaha iyo in lagu qeexo xoolahooda. Xaaladaha intooda badan, degree qayilo ee kiimikada ah ee loo isticmaalo in aasaasidda reactions isleegyo redox.

The sifooyinka atamka

Thanks to daahfurtay of physics galmada, qeexidda casriga ah ee la eb ee, kaas oo ku salaysan aragti Ivanenko iyo Gapon E, kaabaya soo socda xaqiiqooyinka cilmiga ah. Dhismaha xuduntii ah qaaradda ma beddelmin inta lagu guda jiro falgalka kiimikada. Isbedelka saameeyaa oo kaliya orbitals electron taagan. qaab-dhismeedka ay loo saarin karaa in badan oo ka mid ah guryaha jireed iyo kiimikada ee walxaha. Haddii electron ka baxo kastana falagiisuu dhex taagan oo soo baxa in orbital tamarta la eb sare sida waxa loo yaqaan faraxsanahay.

Waa in la ogaadaa in electrons ma noqon kartaa waqti dheer on kuwan orbitals non-muhiimka ah. Ku soo noqoshada ay kastana falagiisuu dhex taagan, electron ah shanqarta galmada ee tamarta. Daraasaddu waxay of sifooyinka sida oo ka mid ah unugyada dhismaha qaybaha kiimikada sida buuna electron, electronegativity, tamarta ionization, ayaa loo ogol yahay saynisyahano ma aha oo kaliya si ay u qeexaan eb ee sida qaybaha walxaha lagama maarmaanka ah, laakiin sidoo kale u ogolaaday inay sharaxdo awooda atamka si ay u sameeyaan dawlad xasiloon iyo energetically cuntamin kelli arrinta, natiijo macquul ah abuurista nooc kasta oo dhaaraheedii kiimikada deggan: Madbacada qaranka, covalent-kala horjeeda iyo apolar, deeq-aqbalana (sida noocyada lagala kulmo covalent) iyo m etallicheskoy. Arintaan ayaa go'aamisa guryaha jireed iyo kiimikada ugu muhiimsan ee birta.

Waxaa la experimentally in size ee la eb kala duwanaan karaan. Dhammaan waxay ku xirnaan doontaa Britain kaas oo lagu daro. Iyada oo X-ray falanqaynta diffraction xisaabi kartaa masaafada u dhexeysa atamka ee xarunta kiimikada, iyo sidoo kale bartaan unit element dhismaha gacan. Lahaanshaha astaamo isbedel ah Fatuuq of atamka ku jira muddada ama koox ka mid ah xubno ka kiimikada, waxaa suurtagal ah in la saadaaliyo guryaha jireed iyo kiimikada. Tusaale ahaan, in muddo la sii kordhaya xuduntii qaaradda ka qaadaan ay hoos u Fatuuq ( "eb riixo"), oo sidaas daraaddeed wiiqi guryaha macdan ah xeryahooda ah, iyo nonmetallic maqalka.

Sayidka, aqoonta dhismeedka eb ee si sax ah go'aan ka gaari kara guryaha jireed iyo kiimikada ee dhammaan waxyaabaha ku jira nidaamka wareegsan qaybaha.